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Abstract

Between 12 and 19 July 2021, a quasi-stationary atmospheric low-pressure system named Bernd caused intense precipitation on already-saturated soil, resulting in severe flooding in Germany, Belgium, and the Netherlands. The Ahr Valley in Rhineland-Palatinate was particularly affected, with approximately 42 000 residents impacted, around 8800 buildings damaged, and 134 fatalities recorded. The flood in the Ahr Valley significantly exceeded the scenarios outlined in official hazard maps, leaving decision-makers and the public unprepared. Substantial issues occurred with the content, issuance, and dissemination of warnings, thereby reducing the effectiveness of emergency response. We evaluate how human losses in the Ahr Valley might have differed under alternative flood early warning and evacuation (FEWE) scenarios, using the agent-based model LifeSim. To run the model for the 2021 Ahr flood, we utilised a reconstructed modelled time series of water depth and flow velocities and estimated the FEWE timeline based on reports and a post-event survey of the affected population. For the reconstructed FEWE timeline, we identified the first flood warning approximately 13 h before the peak of the flood upstream of the simulated domain. Only 17.5 % of those affected received a warning with evacuation instructions, with most becoming aware of evacuation necessities only after flooding had already reached them. Consequently, only about 34 % of the population evacuated their homes or were rescued. Regarding the life loss estimation, the median of the reconstructed flood overestimates the actual life loss by 28.8 %. Simulations of alternative FEWE scenarios indicate a potential life loss reduction of up to 80 % with timely warning dissemination and increased population evacuation. However, scenarios in which the FEWE prompted the population to evacuate at the moment of the imminent hazard at their buildings result in higher human losses. In these cases, vertical evacuation within buildings is more effective. Using a life loss agent-based model, such as LifeSim, can support decisions on FEWEs and improve emergency response planning.