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Abstract

For Arctic estuaries which are characterized by land-fast sea-ice cover during the winter season, processes generating estuarine circulation and residual stratification have not yet been investigated, although some of the largest estuaries in the world belong to this class. Land-fast sea ice provides a no-slip surface boundary condition in addition to the bottom boundary, such that frictional effects are expected to be increased. For this study of estuarine circulation and residual stratification under land-fast sea ice, first a simple linear analytical model is used. To include tidally varying scenarios, a water-column model is applied with a second-moment turbulence closure to juxtapose free-surface and ice-covered estuaries. Well-mixed and strongly stratified tidally periodic scenarios are analyzed by means of a decomposition of estuarine circulation into contributions from gravitational circulation, eddy viscosity - shear covariance (ESCO), surface stress and river run-off. A new method is developed to also decompose tidal residual salinity anomaly profiles. Estuarine circulation intensity and tidally residual potential energy anomaly are studied for a parameter space spanned by the Simpson number and the Unsteadiness number. These are the major results of this study that will support future scenario studies in Arctic estuaries under conditions of accelerated warming:(i) Residual surface drag under ice opposes estuarine circulation;(ii) Residual differential advection under ice destabilizes the near-surface flow;(iii) Reversal of ESCO during strong stratification does not occur under land-fast sea ice;(iv) Tidal pumping (s-ESCO) contributes dominantly to residual stratification also with sea-ice cover.